Resolving Internal And External Conflicts - 1496 Words

Having the skills to resolve internal and external conflicts effectively is one of the biggest challenges faced by organizations in today’s business world. In most cases, mediators are needed to attain success in conflict issues. They are vital to success as they act as they act as neutral parties to analyze a conflict by listening to both parties and coming up with a solution. The mediator is completely impartial (neutral) person(s) who probably doesn’t know either party, but will act as a middle person that listens to both sides of the situation from the two and see if any middle ground opportunities for some kind of arrangement, acceptable to both sides, which will in part or fully help to resolve the situation. By so doing, a mediator functions as an intermediary. A mediator talks to parties in separate rooms and never allows shouting or interruption from disputants facing each other. In fact, it is needless allowing disputants to be in the same room at all. The rol e of the mediator is to â€Å"shuttle† or go between the parties. However, this paper will describe a work-related conflict experience where a mediator was used to resolve the conflict, define the role of a mediator, explain the types of data a mediator may choose to gather and analyze when conducting a session to reduce or eliminate the conflict, assess how the information is utilized in a mediation plan by providing a detailed example of each. Definition of the Mediator A mediator is one that handlesShow MoreRelatedResolving Internal And External Conflicts1482 Words   |  6 PagesHaving the skills to resolve internal and external conflicts effectively is one of the biggest challenges faced by organizations in today’s business world. In most cases, to attain success in conflict issues, mediators are needed. They are vital to success as they act as they act as neutral parties to analyze a conflict by listening to both parties and coming up with a solution. The mediator is completely impartial (neutral) person(s) who probably does not know either party, but will act as a middleRead MoreResolving Internal And External Conflicts1496 Words   |  6 Pages Having the skills to resolve internal and external conflicts effectively is one of the biggest challenges faced by organizations in today’s business world. In most cases, mediators are needed to attain success in conflict issues. They are vital to success a s they act as they act as neutral parties to analyze a conflict by listening to both parties and coming up with a solution. The mediator is completely impartial (neutral) person(s) who probably doesn’t know either party, but will act as aRead MoreStudy Questions for Disguises by Jean Fong Kwok Essay599 Words   |  3 Pageslike before. She lives with a different perspective than the other people on the train, and leads by example. Q: Why do you think this story is titled â€Å"Disguises†? A: The word â€Å"disguises† is significant because it can describe Mrs. Chen’s external and internal situation. A disguise is used to hide or cover something up. In this case, Mrs. Chen tries to hide from the present world by reliving the past. She is physically in a place where everything is foreign, from the language to the treatment ofRead MoreAuditors And The International Financial Reporting Standards1703 Words   |  7 Pagesdispute, the companies and the auditor should consider alternative dispute resolving mechanisms which are faster, less expensive and less adversarial than traditional litigation. Reason for Conflict: Audited financial statements may be a source of dispute between the auditor and management. The process of audit resolution would entail negotiating them. Knapp (1985, p. 202) proposes the way that auditors approach these conflicts play a big role on the auditors independence and the content of the resultsRead MoreLeadership Application For Leadership Applications987 Words   |  4 Pages In order to become more effective at leadership applications, people must learn how to more effectively communicate, listen, and embrace a variety of diverse perspectives. Positively influencing both internal and external variables on personal and professional levels require the attainment of individual and self-awareness. Having gained a relatively broad-based awareness for many diverse perspectives, all of which are very much applicable towards enhancing efficiency, effectiveness, and overallRead MoreASEAN Essay900 Words   |  4 Pagesprosperity with its neighbors. And beginning in the early 1970s, a number of external powers have established special links with the Association. ASEAN is fully aware of the need to be embedded in the broader regional, if not global context, particularly in the economic area (Hwee, Y. 2013). ASEAN’s external linkages were strengthened during the second ASEAN Summit in 1977, which led to meetings with leaders of three important external partners – Australia (1974), New Zealand (1975) and Japan (1976). FromRead MoreIntroduction. Conflict Is Inevitable, Be It In The Workplace1175 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction Conflict is inevitable, be it in the workplace or outside the work place. The reason is that people are from diverse backgrounds and thus have different ideas and opinions. In the workplace, employees are expected to work together towards achieving the company’s goals. The management needs to find ways to resolve conflicts that may arise so as to ensure that there is increased production. Conflict management is important and it entails being able to identify and handle conflicts in a mannerRead MoreThe Summaries Four Types Of Temperaments788 Words   |  4 Pagesevaluating a change, an artisan can assist in implanting a needed change in a timely fashion. The idealist avoids conflict and confrontation because it upsets them. They put up barriers between people. They also have the tendency to focus on what might be rather than what is. This would cause a conflict to my guardian personality. Guardian leaders deal with confrontation by systematically resolving the problem and focusing on the here and now rather than what might be. An idealist act in good conscious asRead MoreMalaysia s Approach On Resolving The South China Sea1212 Words   |  5 Pages Malaysia’s Approach on Resolving the South China Sea (SCS) Disputes CDR Mohamad Hasli bin Abu Hassan RMN Defense Language Institute English Language Center During his keynote address at the opening of the 30th Asia-Pacific roundtable, the Malaysian Prime Minister said, â€Å"We will continue to rely on diplomacy and dialogue to peacefully resolve difference and disputes. We will do so in accordance with and in adherence to the norms, customs, and principles of international law (Cheng,Read MoreCase Study : Course Work Of Project Management1573 Words   |  7 Pagesand Rachel. They are hiring an external company for Planning and Designing the plan. Below is the overview of the process: 1.1 Planning In this Project, Planning needs to be accurate to fulfill the timeframe. Following is the Project steps plan: Plan from 01/01/2015 to 31/03/2015 Tasks Start Date End Date Days Final The message to launch to customers 1/1/2015 6/1/2015 4 Meetings with external company for discussing requirements 1/1/2015 9/1/2015 6 External Company work Sprint-1 12/1/2015

Explain what sources of finance are available for small to...

Explain what sources of finance are available for small to medium sized companies and explain why they sometimes face difficulties in raising finance 1. Introduction The SME (Small and medium enterprise) sector is one of the crucial important contributor to economic growth in terms of Gross Domestic Product(GDP) and job creation worldwide(IFC,2010). According to OECD(2006), SMEs had created more than sixty percent of the job opportunities for OECD countries. That situation for developing counties are even more obvious. There is no doubt that the development of SMEs is closely linked to national economy. The growth of SME sector, however, presents a stalled tendency, even recession situation, owing to the deficiency of accessing to†¦show more content†¦It includes trade credit, public debt, bank financing as well as nonbank financial institution debt. Unlike equity financing which would dilutes the owners equity, and consequently, may partly deprives the owner of control of the firm. (Abdulsaleh Worthington, 2013). Debt financing would be a proper approach for SMEs owners to maintain full proprietorship as well as management(Abdulsaleh Worthington, 2013). 2.3.1 Trade credit According to Garcà ­a-Teruel Martà ­nez-Solano (2010), trade credit is a paying agreement which made by seller and buyer, that allow the buyer to,in a specified period, make a deferred payment after the good or services having been provided. In this way, small firms would have a relatively short-time to arrange its cash flow and eventually overcoming shortage of cash or funds. Moreover, trade credit would be a substitution when other financing techniques unavailable. That is to say, small and medium firms will gain their opportunity of survival. 2.3.2 Non-bank financial institution debt Non-bank financial institution’s(NBFI) role of lending is similar as bank financing to a certain extent, their biggest differences are the mode of borrowing audition and the length of the loan terms. Generally speaking, the loans of NBFIs are longer than the duration of the commercialShow MoreRelatedExplain what sources of finance are available for small to medium sized companies and explain why they sometimes face difficulties in raising finance2495 Words   |  10 Pagesfinancing sources for SMEs 4 1.1 Different stages in raising finance 4 1.2 Venture Capital: a light of hope for the SMEs 5 1.3 Leasing and Factoring: special survival skills 7 2 Difficulties for SMEs in raising finance 8 2.1 Biggest trouble: lack of credit records 8 2.2 Capital constraints 9 2.3 Other barriers 10 3 Conclusion 10 Reference 11 Explain what sources of finance are available for small to medium sized companies and explain why they sometimes face difficultiesRead MoreChapter 134543 Words   |  19 Pagesmarkets D. Language E. Country specific technical standards 2. In the United States, what percent of firms export, according to the U.S. Small Business Administration? A. Nearly 98 percent B. About 23 percent C. Less than 2 percent D. A little under 50 percent E. Over 50 percent 3. Large firms generally tend to be ______________ about seeking opportunities for profitable exporting, whereas medium-sized and small firms are ____________. A. passive; aggressive B. reactive; proactive C. discouraged;Read MoreExport Guide Essay12240 Words   |  49 PagesCHAPTER 7 7.1 When exporting indirectly, is it better to use a merchant or an agent in the export marketing channel? Explain. When exporting indirectly, whether it is better to use a merchant or an agent when exporting depends on the objectives and needs of the exporter. A merchant takes title to the goods and assumes most of the risk. In return for this, the merchant consumes a greater share of the return, receiving a greater share of the producer’s profit margin. This can be justified for a producerRead MoreEffect of Internal Controls on Financial Performance11978 Words   |  48 Pagescharacteristics (Gartner et al., 1989) have to be taken into account. In line with the above, there have been challenging debates all over the world on the role played by Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) towards economic development. Therefore, a vast literature on the growth and performance of SMEs has been developed over the years. Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) have had a privileged treatment in the development literature, particularly over the last two decades. Hardly any arguments are put forwardRead MoreThe Risk Management Function Of A General Insurer9457 Words   |  38 Pagesdistributed its products directly to customers, but it is now considering distributing its products via insurance brokers or even purchasing an insurance broker. Question As part of the strategic planning process, you have been asked by the Board to: †¢ Explain the contribution that risk management can make to an effective strategic planning process. †¢ Analyse the risks for this insurer if it decides to distribute its products via insurance brokers; and the risks for this insurer of owning an insuranceRead MoreThesis on Empower Women Through Micro Credit Programmes18140 Words   |  73 Pagescountries. As Noeleen Heyzer of UNIFEM reveals in the above statement, there is clearly an important role for microfinance to play in the ‘empowerment’ of women. However, there remains much debate over exactly what this role should look like, as well as over exactly what is meant by the concept of ‘women’s empowerment.’ Much of the debate centers on the perceived tradeoffs between women’s empowerment efforts and organizational financial sustainability. Many microfinance institutionsRead MoreThe Accounting Profession and Nat39077 Words   |  157 PagesAccountants in the Attainment of Banking Sector Consolidation Objectives in Nigeria; The Use of Ratios in Financial Analysis and Prediction of Financial Crisis; The Relationship and Problems of Auditors in a Joint Audit Exercise: A Survey of Ten Audit Companies in Nigeria; Accountants Role in Investing in Stocks and Shares in the Capital Market; The Undisclosed Facts on Exempted Value Added Tax (VAT) Items in Nigeria: A Survey of Northern and Southern Zones; and Entrepreneurship and Africa s Quest forRead MoreAcca P7 Notes24991 Words   |  100 PagesENVIRONMENT EXAM QUESTIONS ââ€" Define â€Å"Money Laundering†, and explain the auditor’s responsibilities. ââ€" Comment on the need for ethical guidance for accountants on money laundering. (Pilot Paper Q5 ) ââ€" Explain the auditor’s responsibilities relating to the laws and regulations that apply to a client’s business. INTERNATIONAL REGULATORY FRAMEWORKS Regulatory framework In each country, regulation comes from a number of sources. Since this is largely arevision area from F8, and is not examinedRead MoreIct and Ebusiness Retail Industry88499 Words   |  354 Pagesmanufacturing, construction, financial and service sectors. All results are available on the internet and can be accessed or ordered via the Europa server or directly at the SeBW website (www.europa.eu.int/comm/enterprise/ict/policy/watch/index.htm, www.ebusiness-watch.org). This document is a final report of a Sector Impact Study, focusing on electronic business in the retail industry. The study describes how companies use ICT for conducting business, and, above all, assesses implications thereofRead MoreCase Study for Management Accounting36912 Words   |  148 PagesCASES FROM MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING PRACTICES Table of Contents Case 1: Case 2: Bal Seal Engineering Robin Cooper Bill’s Custom Planters William Stammerjohan Deborah Seifert Dublin Shirt Company Peter Clarke in assoc. with in assoc. with Paul Juras Wayne Bremser ECN.W William Lawler Endesa Gary M. Cunningham Scott Ericksen Francisco J. Lopez Lubian Antonio Pareja Kincaid Manufacturing Jon Yarusso Ram Ramanan Osram.NA John Shank Lawrence Carr William Lawler Pleasant Run Children’s Home Brooke E. Smith

Hrm Overnight Tour 2011 Free Essays

PROJECT PROPOSAL I. PROJECT TITLE:â€Å"HRM Overnight Tour 2011† II. PROJECT PROPONENT:BSHRM 4-1 III. We will write a custom essay sample on Hrm Overnight Tour 2011 or any similar topic only for you Order Now PROJECT RATIONALE: The HRM Educational Tour 2011 is open to all HRM and non-HRM students of Sumulong College of Arts and Sciences. It is an experience which will afford students the opportunity to be familiarized with hotel operations, attend seminars, appreciate nature’s beauty and build friendship amongst each other. By attending this tour, student will be able to better understand what’s behind their chosen career/course and experience learning outside the four corners of the room. IV. PROJECT OBJECTIVES: Short-Term Objectives . To introduce the HRM students in learning outside the four corners of the room. 2. To introduce students to the different divisions of the hotel involving administrative and operation functions. 3. To assist students in determining their areas of interest with the wide array of career choices when working for the hotel or the hospitality industry in general. 4. To give the students the opportunity to attend seminars and experience hands-on a ctivity. 5. To give the students a chance to appreciate nature’s beauty. 6. To let the students have fun, bond and at the same time build friendship among each other. Long-Term Objectives 1. To help market the school internally and externally. a) Internally – the said educational tour can help market the school, especially to HRM student, because it will leave a lasting impression into the students mind. It will definitely leave an impression that our school doesn’t only offer quality education but also give the students the opportunity to experience learning outside the four corners of the room. b) Externally – because of the lasting impression left into the existing students’ minds, by words of mouth, the students themselves will serve as effective marketing tool. . To contribute to the school’s vision of producing graduates who can compete in industrial and technological skills. V. PROJECT DESCRIPTION: The HRM Educational Tour 2011 is a two-day experience that provides a program consisting of hotel familiarization tour, introduction of the divisions of a hotel, seminar facilitated by departmental trainers of t he hotel, trainings, actual demos, student participation, overnight accommodation at a hotel, environmental appreciation and lastly, recreation. The first stop of the tour is Subic International Hotel where the students will be familiarized with the hotel and trained in the administrative and operational function of the hotel. The training will be facilitated by Departmental Trainers of the hotel who are certified by the Subic International Hotel’s Human Resources Department ensuring that quality training is delivered. The training will include powerpoint presentations, actual demos and student participation. At the end of the training, students will be toured at the back and front areas of the hotel. All the participants will also experience having all their meal, from breakfast to dinner, at the hotel and are free to use the hotel’s swimming pool, mini gym and sauna. The next day, second stop will be at the Subic Ocean Adventure where participant are entitled to a â€Å"Mariners’ Package† where they could enjoy a guided park tour, watch the Dolphin and Sea Lion’s show, visit the Ocean Discovery Aquarium, photo opportunity with the SBMA mascot and lastly, entrance to the Adventure Beach for lunch and a refreshing afternoon swim. After the two days of skill and knowledge enhancing programs, warm accommodating, good food, nature appreciation and recreation at its best, students will definitely say that studying at Sumulong College of Arts and Sciences is the best. VI. PROJECT DURATION: October 1 to October 2, 2011 HRM Overnight Tour 2011 General Schedule of Activities: October 1, 2011 DAY 1 TimeActivity 5:00 – 6:00AM:Registration and Boarding 6:00 – 10:00AM:Trip to Subic International Hotel 10:00 – 10:00 PM:Hotel Tour Training/ Seminar Lunch Accommodation Swimming/Gym/Sauna Dinner 10:00 PM OnwardsSleeping time October 2, 2011 DAY 2 TimeActivity 6:00 – 7:00 AM:Breakfast at Subic International Hotel 7:00 – 8:00 AM:Hotel Check-out 8:00 – 8:30 AM:Trip to Subic Ocean Adventure Theme Park 8:30 – 12:00 NN:Guided park tour and DSL Show 12:00 – 1:30 PM:Lunch at Adventure Beach 1:30 – 4:30 PM:Enjoyment of the Beach 4:30 – 7:30 PM:Trip back to Antipolo (SCAS) (end of tour) VII. TARGET BENEFICIARIES Target beneficiaries of HRM Educational Tour 2011 includes: HRM students, interested students from other programs and HRM faculty members. We are also inviting old HRM students and even SCAS graduates to join the said tour. We are expecting, at least, fifty (50) participants excluding the *faculty members and non-HRM students/ **outsider/ graduates. *HRM faculty members’ are subject to a twenty percent (20%) discount if the expected numbers of participants are not met. *HRM faculty members’ are free of all charges if the expected numbers of participants are met. **Companion or invited company by students are considered outsider. VIII. PROPOSED BUDGET (for 50 participants) Expenses BudgetPer person charge Transportation P 25,000. 00P 500. 00 / pax Insurance Toll and Parking Subic International Hotel P 127,000. 00P 2,540. 00 / pax Hotel tour Seminars/Training Accommodation Meals (4) -Lunch -Dinner -Breakfast -Lunch Ocean Adventure *Other expenses P 5,000. 00P 100. 00 / pax Tarpaulins Waiver forms Contract signing Paperwork SCAS Certificate *Contingency Fund P 23,000. 00P 460. 00 / pax TOTAL = **P 180,000. 00 **P 3,600. 00 / pax **all income and expenses are subject for auditing. all the excess of the fund will be divided into two (2), half will go to the HRM Society fund while the other half will proceed to the treasury of SCAS or as instructed by the SCAS Accounting Department. IX. MONITORING AND EVALUATION The HRM Educational Tour 2011 will be supervised by the officers of the BSHRM 4-1 Events Committee especially the HRM Department Head, HRM Faculty Members, Event Chairman, Events Finance Officer, Events Marketing Officer and Events Program Logistic s Officer. They will make sure that the flow of the activity/program will be safe and properly executed. They will also observe the participation of all the participants in the said tour/event. Also, all the participants and their parent/guardian are required to sign a waiver form declaring that the academe and its management will not be held liable for any untoward incident while the participant is engaged in the said tour. Nonikko Dizon Mendoza President, SCAS HRM Society Chairman, Events Committee CC: President Executive Vice President Dean for Academic Affairs Office of Student Affairs Department Head, HRM Accounting Department How to cite Hrm Overnight Tour 2011, Papers

Gender roles in Society free essay sample

Each society has binary oppositions as in masculine and feminine roles and the established values have little to do with nature and everything to do with culture. Moreover, the ideals and distinctions of masculine and feminine activities and behaviors are reinforced and redefined through powerful social norms of any particular period. In Medieval and early Modern Europe societies, gender roles were clearly defined by the strong prevailing social structure of the period and were constantly changing because of historical circumstances. For example, in the Greek ancient city of Sparta, masculinity as an ideal was strictly associated with the characteristics of being physically powerful, loyal warriors while femininity was related to marriage and procreation. In the High Middle Ages, France’s social structure deemed that a noble masculine role could include becoming either a member of the church or a knight whereas a noble female’s role primarily focused on learning a diffe rent set of domestic skills. By the sixteenth through the nineteenth centuries, social norms began to associate masculinity with professional skills and education while women were limited in these domains based upon their gender. With this framework in mind, this essay will examine and analyze gender roles beginning with Medieval Sparta through the early Modern Europe period and how masculine and feminine roles were continually being redefined because of historical circumstances. Masculinity as an ideal in the Greek ancient city of Sparta was exclusively based upon boys growing up to be strong, obedient, and loyal warriors because Sparta was a warrior society. In the film documentary entitled The Spartans, Narrator Bettany Hughes explains how the boys of Sparta reached these lofty goals. She states that when boys reached the age of seven, they began agoge—a term meaning a type of military training—that the city-state controlled. The agoge taught boys survival and fieldcraft skills as a means to protect the city-state from invasions. Moreover, once a male turned twelve, the men in charge of the training regiment enforced the practice of pederasty (homosexual) because the most important masculine trait for men to possess was the ability to show steadfast loyalty to one’s military unit. This type of male custom had to be performed because the city-state believed this was the only way to ensure warriors formed a complete and unbreakable bond with each other and united the city-state. At the age of twenty, Hughes states that males received their rite of passage to warrior status and he  now has acquired the privilege of going to the common mess and sharing a syssitia, a common meal, with the other seasoned warriors. While masculinity was associated with physical strength and loyalty, the ideals of femininity in Spartan society focused on taking care of the household duties while also spending countless hours perfecting their bodies and oratory skills through vigorous drills and training. Accordingly, Hushes asserts that Spartan women boasted about how they were as physically fit as their male counterparts and flaunted their oratory skills when out in the public area. Additionally, Hughes states that after marriage a woman’s gender role consisted of giving birth to as many healthy males as possible—the next generation of strong, fit warriors. However, married woman did not have permission to live with her husband until his active military service ended at age of thirty. Moreover, Hughes claims that a woman’s role in Sparta was not restricted to only procreation. Femininity was associated with economic power because women controlled all of the household finances while their husbands were away preparing for war. The gender roles in ancient city of Sparta were strictly defined because being a male meant that he must learn male dominant traits in order to become a stout warrior whereas femininity solely focused on the need for procreation. During the High Middle Ages, although France was considered a warrior society, the path to adulthood for noble boys was dissimilar to that of Spartan boys. In Constance Bouchard text entitled Strong of Body, Brave and Noble, she explains that once a boy reached between the ages of six to eight, he too spent the rest of his childhood not at home while learning masculine traits (148). However, different from Spartan society where the city-state enforced only one option, a boy’s parents had two masculine positions to choose from. One choice was to have their son become a member of the clergy. If his parents selected an ecclesiastical life, the boy would begin his religious training around the same time as a modern boy would start elementary school (Bouchard 148). Parents also had to decide whether they wanted their son to grow up to become a monk or be a member of the secular clergy. For the first option, the parents would send him to a monastery and â€Å"boys given to monasteries were called â€Å"oblates,† from the Latin word meaning that ‘which is offered.† Thus the oblation itself was expected to a positive effect on the parents’ hoped-for-salvation† (148- 149). Alternatively, if parents decided on the aboy being a member of the secular clergy, then they would send him to a house of canons (Bouchard 148- 149). Once the boy reached his teen years, he was then given a chance to make his own final decision regarding his lifelong commitment to the church, but rarely did a boy growing up in a church setting choose to leave for a secular life (Bouchard 148). The other masculine noble role in France was to become milite—a term meaning knight (Bouchard 11). A boy’s training would normally rake place at his father’s lord’s castle and a count might assemble the sons from several castellans of his reign for training in hope of assuring lifelong loyalty from the boys (Bouchard 77). Military traits of medieval France, comparable to Spartan customs, consisted of continually improving a male’s battle skills during tournaments to ensure readiness because the warrior skills boys acquired would later be used in wartime when they reached manhood (Bouchard 78). Moreover, Bouchard states that obtaining war fighting skills was a key component of masculinity: â€Å"in the twelfth century, all nobles would have agreed that their warrior training and skill in arms were important to their status. They gloried in their courage, loyalty, and raw strength† (109). By the end of the twelfth century, incorporating the art chivalry expanded the definition of noble masculinity in France. Unlike Spartan men who were only judged on the bravery and strength, chivalry or â€Å"courtesy† was also expected from a courtly knight. The chivalry virtues included: being a humble Christian, showing politeness toward women, having gentle and refined speech, and possessing skills in dancing, singing and hunting (Bouchard 110). Bouchard explains the ideals of chivalry as: â€Å"Whatever its other attributes, late twelfth-and thirteenth-century chivalry was a conglomerate of ideas and ideals that glorified and ennobled welfare† (109). Being a noble male in France in the High Middle Ages required obtaining warrior the same warrior attributes of that of Spartan as well as the art of chivalry in order to adhere to noble social norms of the era. Noble feminine ideals in medieval France were similar to Spartan society regarding procreation, but noble feminine identity also included learning and executing a new set of domestic skills. Consequently, noble girls had to be educated in castle management from the very moment they were old enough to follow their mothers to the kitchen, to the treasury, and to the grain sto re bins because when a noble girl did marry, which was at an age a lot younger than her male  counterpart, she might suddenly become the lady of the castle (Bouchard 98). Additionally, Bouchard’s text assets: â€Å"The most specifically feminine skill was needlework. The distaff, used to spin wool into thread, had long a symbol for women, and the fine ladies in the romances routinely spent their time on sewing and embroidery† (75). Furthermore, if noble girl received a courtly education, her feminine traits would also include the ability to sing and possibly even play a musical instrument. Nevertheless, Bouchard stresses, â€Å"household management skills were doubtless the most important part of a noble girl’s training† (75). Clearly, in medieval France the hegemonic role of noble women as the loving and devoted homemakers was the norm. By the sixteenth century, a male’s role no longer focused on obtaining warrior attributes; instead, masculinity was equated with utilizing his intelligence while femininity still focused on fertility and motherhood. During the early modern witch-hunts, many Germans feared that the practice of witchcraft was destroying the social fabric of any given community. Lyndal Roper’s text entitled Witch Craze, provides evidence that male interrogators relied on their rhetorical skills as a means to restore social order. For example, a male interrogator had to have extensive knowledge of the types of probing questions to ask the accused witch and when to stop the questioning process to ensure a guilty plea was forth coming from the accused witch. Roper writes: â€Å"In many of the interrogations it is apparent that the techniques of questioning and of torture were designed to bring the accused witch to a crisis, when she would finally admit at least to an element of guilt† (48). Therefore, the interrogation process did not rely on the Spartan masculine ideal of ‘might makes right,’ but rather required a man’s ability to use his intellect and rhetorical skills in order to save the village from the witch harms. Femininity, on the other hand, was equated with fertility and motherhood. As a result, women were not allowed to learn professional skills, such as being a guild, an interrogator, a doctor or any other profession. Moreover, the role of a woman from a Protestant viewpoint of the era furthers this point: â€Å"A woman’s destiny was to become a wife and bare children, enduring the subjection to her husband which God had ordained. In giving birth, she was pleasing God, whose divine plan it was that women should have children† (Roper138). Consequently, according to Roper: â€Å"Such as vision of female destiny did not  leave much room for women who, for whatever reason, did not marry or have children† (138). When natural philosophy made headway in eighteenth century, the belief in the occult began to wane, and the masculine role of the middle and upper classes moved more resolutely into the intellectual sphere. In The Mind has No Sex Londa Schiebinger states, â€Å"noblemen in England and France perceived that education was necessary to prepare young gentlemen to wield power in the state†(13). Therefore, masculinity was associated with knowledge because membership into academics was men only. Moreover, obtaining a formal education was a means of social mobility. The study of science was also part of the masculine culture because according to Schiebinger’s text: â€Å"The revolution in European life and manners brought to triumph of the notion of sexual complementarily, a theory which taught that men and women are not physical and moral equals but complementarily opposites† (216-217). As a result of this theory accepted by male European society, the study of science became a male only domain. Schiebinger expends on this masculine ideal: â€Å"By embedding the theory of sexual difference on the theory of separate spheres, complementarians cemented the association of masculinity with science. In the eighteenth century, these were also prescribed characteristics of man† (237). Women, on the other hand, were not permitted in the professional and educational spheres based upon their gender, and the majority of the male society expected them to adhere to their proper station as mothers and nurtures. Schiebinger explains why women were barred from receiving a formal education, â€Å"insofar as academics were rooted in universities, the exclusion of women is easily explained: women were unlikely candidates for admission to institutions deriving their membership largely from universities, which since their founding had generally proscribed women (20). Additionally, according to Schiebinger’s text many of the era believed that if women were allowed to participate in the study of science, they would then be neglecting their prescribed role of being mothers and nurtures. Schiebinger’s text states that Louis de Lesclache held this type of opinion, and he concluded that, â€Å"women should not be taught natural philosophy, but rather moral philosophy, with lessons in prudence, temperance and justice; they should search only for that knowledge which ‘establishes order in the homes, serves their children, and increases their fear and love in God†Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ (218). Clearly, de Lesclache believed  that a women’s role in European society of this period was that she was to appear weak, chaste while solely focusing on her â€Å"womanly† duties of being a loving and caring housewife. Furthermore, if women did study science covertly, their findings were not allowed to be published because women’s writings were excluded. The reason behind the matter was that they did not fit because they were not members of the academies, not part of the canon, and not respected as standard works. Moreover, because they were not allowed to attend universities, women could not read or write in Latin which was the official language for written observations. The end result is that women were limited in the intellectual sphere because they were just that—women. The history of Medieval Sparta through the early Modern Europe period demonstrate the key binary oppositions of each society that served each one have never been perpetual. Moreover, each society had distinct sets of standards for the roles of feminine and masculine traits and had gender- specific expectations that men and women had to adhere to in order to fit into societal norms. On the other hand, while male gender roles were constantly being redefined because of historical circumstances, a women’s role continued to focus on the same attributes of procreation and domestic obligations. Consequently, gender roles in Medieval and early Modern Europe societies favored men, to a certain extent, because masculine roles had more opportunity for change and advancement whereas a woman’s identity in society remained the status quo.